AFESC TR 88-14
NERC-88/32
June 1988
EFFECTS OF AIRCRAFT NOISE AND SONIC BOOMS ON DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND WILDLIFE: BIBLIOGRAPHIC ABSTRACTS
Engineering and Services Center
U.S. Air Force
Fish and Wildlife Service
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AFESC TR 88-14
NERC-88/32
June 1988
EFFECTS OF AIRCRAFT NOISE AND SONIC BOOMS ON DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND WILDLIFE: BIBLIOGRAPHIC ABSTRACTS
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Suggested citation:
Gladwin, D.N., K.M. Manci, and R. Villella. 1988. Effects of aircraft noise and sonic booms on domestic animals and wildlife: bibliographic abstracts. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. National Ecology Research Center, Ft. Collins, CO. NERC-88/32. 78 pp.
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This report was produced as the result of a cooperative research project between the National Ecology Research Center, Ft. Collins, CO and the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Tyndall Air Force Base, FL, on the effects of aircraft noise and sonic boom on animals. The effort was funded by the Air Force's Noise and Sonic Boom Impact Technology program, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH.
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The U.S. Air Force must be able to conduct flight operations in assigned airspace over public and private lands to train personnel and test new technologies to fulfill its National defense mission. The Air Force can only fulfill its mission by maximizing use of current aircraft operating areas and varying military training routes to give pilots added experience. Acquiring and maintaining new airspace is vital in light of increasing mission requirements and international agreements. These actions will impose aircraft noise on the environment which may affect wildlife; thus these actions fall under the auspices of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969. NEPA requires all Federal Government agencies to analyze the environmental impact of proposed Federal actions "significantly affecting the quality of the human environment" (42 USC 4341).
A great deal of research was conducted during the 1960's and 1970's to determine the likely effects of commercial supersonic jet aircraft on the environment, focusing on the effects on humans, due to public fear of adverse ecological impacts. However, the knowledge gained from this research does not apply directly to wildlife on areas overflown by aircraft at supersonic speeds and at low altitudes.
Although scientists have researched some effects of noise on animals, many data gaps still exist on the overall effects of aircraft noise on wildlife. In addition, perceived inadequate or inaccurate analysis of the effects of aircraft noise on wildlife by the general public has resulted in delays of flight operation expansion.
To develop this document the National Ecology Research Center conducted a literature search of information pertaining to animal hearing and the effects of aircraft noise and sonic booms on domestic animals and wildlife. Information concerning other types of noise was also gathered to supplement the lack of knowledge on the effects of aircraft noise. The bibliographic abstracts in this report provide a compilation of current knowledge. No attempt was made to evaluate the appropriateness or adequacy of the scientific approach of each study.
The purpose of this document is to provide an information base on the effects of aircraft noise and sonic booms on various animal species. Such information is necessary to assess potential impacts to wildlife populations from proposed military and other flight operations.
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Acoustical Society of America. 1980. San Diego workshop on the interaction between manmade noise and vibration and Arctic marine wildlife. Acoust. Soc. Am., Am. Inst. Physics, New York. 84 pp.
The Acoustical Society of America held a workshop in 1980 to assess the potential hazards of manmade noise associated with proposed Alaska Arctic (North Slope-Outer Continental Shelf) petroleum operations on wildlife and to prepare a research plan to secure the knowledge necessary for proper assessment of noise impacts. Noise sources identified as most likely to affect wildlife were seismic pulse generators; helicopters and other aircraft; surface vessels, such as tugs and work boats; and vehicles on land and ice, such as trucks, tractors, and snowmobiles. Other possible sources were oil well drilling, island and causeway building, and petroleum and gas production and processing. The known effects of noise on Arctic wildlife are limited; however, noise disturbance to birds has been documented. Nesting common eiders (Somateria mollissima) have been disturbed by low-flying, small, fixed-wing aircraft and by helicopters. Recent experiments and experience have shown that the lesser snow goose (Anser caerulescens) is sensitive to aircraft disturbance. Low-level (150 m AGL) aircraft overflights elicited a stronger response from molting, flightless sea ducks [particularly, oldsquaw (Clangula hymalis)] than did higher level overflights. Little data have been collected on the effects of noise on marine mammals. Beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) are more easily displaced by boat traffic when feeding. Bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) appear more wary of noise during spring compared to during autumn. Marine mammals are highly acoustically oriented, and more research is needed to assess the potential impacts of noise on these species. Assessment of the expected noise impacts on Arctic wildlife requires much additional data on noise sources, noise propagation in the Arctic environment, general ambient noise conditions, physical environmental factors, and species response to such noise. A scientific research plan is presented, with priority indicators, to obtain the needed data.
Algers, B., I. Ekesbo, and S. Stromberg. 1978. The impact of continuous noise on animal health. Acta Vet. Scand. Suppl. 67. 26 pp.
This paper reviews the literature on continuous noise and its effects on animals. The term "continuous noise" was used to indicate noise that is not intermittent in nature and not characterized by short sound blasts. The review mainly covers research carried out on laboratory animals because few observations of continuous noise on farm animals have been made. Effects of noise on behavior and various organ systems, hormonal systems, and immunology are discussed.
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Altes, R.A. 1973. The Fourier-Mellin transform and mammalian hearing. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 63:174-183.
A combined Fourier-Mellin transform yields a representation of a signal that is independent of delay and scale change. Such a representation should be useful for speech analysis where delay and scale differences degrade the performance of correlation operations or other similar measures. At least two different versions of a combined Fourier-Mellin transform can be implemented. The simplest version completely eliminates spectral phase information, while a slightly more complicated version preserves some phase information. Both versions can be synthesized with a Fourier-Mellin transform and an exponential-sampling algorithm. Exponential sampling produces a frequency scale distortion that is similar to the effect of the cochlea. The transform also can be implemented with a bank of proportional band-width filters. If the relative phase between spectral components is preserved, then a Fourier-Mellin transform can perform compression of linear-period modulated signals. Such signals are used for echolocation by bats and cetaceans. The same approach that gives scale and delay invariance can be used to obtain other transform combinations that provide insensitivity to a variety of distortions. The combined tranforms can also be used for analyzing these distortions.
Ames, D.R. 1978. Physiological responses to auditory stimuli. Pages 23-45 in J.L. Fletcher and R. G. Busnel, eds. Effects of noise on wildlife. Academic Press, New York.
The auditory threshold for sheep was determined by changes in EEG patterns and behavior responses. Effects of three types of noise, at different intensities, on heart and respiration rates, growth, digestion, and reproduction indicated a differentiation between sound type and intensity. Although physiological changes were observed, results suggested that the sheep acclimated to sound.
Ames, D.R. 1971. Thyroid responses to sound stress. J. Anim. Sci. 33:247. [Abstract.]
Ten growing lambs were subjected to two intensities (75 and 90 dB) of white noise to evaluate the effects of sound intensity on thyroid function. Each animal was exposed to a control period (63 dB background), followed by treatment periods of 75 and 90 dB. Each exposure, including the control was for 3 weeks. Results indicated that sound intensities of 90-dB white noise inhibited the release of thyroid hormones; no differences were detected between the 75-dB and control group.
Ames, D.R., and L.A. Arehart. 1972. Physiological response of lambs to auditory stimuli. J. Anim. Sci. 34:994-998.
Auditory thresholds were determined for 10 Suffolk ewe lambs. EEG pattern changes and behavioral responses were highly correlated with hearing thresholds. The audiogram for sheep was similar in shape to that for humans,
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but at a higher frequency (most sensitive at 7,000 Hz). Lambs were exposed to different noise types and levels; heart rate and respiratory rates were measured. Differentiation to sound type and level was apparent as well as acclimation to sound.
Anonymous. 1969. Spectrum: The death of birds...(news release). Environment 11(6):S-1.
Biologists at the Fort Jefferson National Monument at the southern tip of Florida have recorded a major reproductive failure among sooty terns (Sterna fuscata); 98% of the population of 40,000 terns failed to reproduce successfully in 1969. Reproduction among other bird species, including other terns, was normal that year. According to Boyd Evison of the National Park Service, some specialists think that sonic booms may have caused the nesting failure.
Anthony, A., and E. Ackerman. 1957. Biological effects of noise in vertebrate animals. Tech. Rep. 57-647. Wright Air Develop. Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. 98 pp.
The stress effects of noise on bodily functions other than hearing were studied in laboratory rodents. Physiological, biochemical, and behavioral effects of intense noise at low and high frequencies were examined using (1) flame spectrophotometric analysis of serum electrolytes; (2) serum ascorbic acid and blood sugar changes; (3) changes in adrenal and plasma cholesterol; (4) behavioral changes in noise-exposed rats, mice, and guinea pigs; and (5) relationship of seizure-susceptibility to noise stimulation. A corona speaker was designed and constructed for use in acoustic studies. Short, daily exposures to intense noise of about 132- to 140-dB pressure levels induced physiological stress in rats, mice, and guinea pigs by increasing adreno-cortical activity (manifested in "anxiety-like" behavior) under stimulation at low frequencies (150-4,800 Hz) and increasing audiogenic seizures at high frequencies (2-40 kHz). Animals appeared to adapt somewhat to noise stress; however, the fact that noise elicits a defense response makes it reasonable to assume that high levels of acoustic noise will overtax the homeostatic adaptive mechanisms. Considerable work will be necessary to define the tolerance limits of animals to noise, both alone and in situations where noise is only one of several stressful stimuli.
Anthony, A., and E. Ackerman. 1955. Effects of noise on the blood eosinophil levels and adrenals of mice. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 27:1144-1149.
Physiological changes are described following exposure of mice to single and intermittent noise stimulation of 110 dB for varying lengths of time. Attention is focused on the degree of adrenocortical activation as measured by cytological changes in the adrenal gland and decrease in the number of circulating eosinophils. Because the observed changes were transient, the noise was described as not harmful.
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Anthony, A., E. Ackerman, and J.A. Lloyd. 1959. Noise stress in laboratory rodents. I. Behavioral and endocrine responses of mice, rats, and guinea pigs. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 31:1430-1437.
Mice, rats, and guinea pigs were exposed daily to high-intensity noise in the frequency range of 150-4,800 Hz in these three species. The adrenal response supports the interpretation that noise acts as a physiological stress, but does not induce harmful nonauditory effects.
Arehart, L.A., and D.R. Ames. 1972. Performance of early-weaned lambs as affected by sound type and intensity. J. Anim. Sci. 35:481-485.
Early-weaned lambs were subjected to three types of noise at 75 and 100 dB. Noise at 75 dB increased average daily weight gain and improved feed efficiency compared to controls and the 100-dB group. Acclimatization to sound was evident. Lambs exposed to music were calm and more docile compared to lambs subjected to intermittent sound and noise. Neural and neuroendocrine systems are possible mechanisms for the effects of noise on feed efficiency.
Austin, O.L., Jr., W.B. Robertson, Jr., and G.E. Woolfenden. 1970. Mass hatching failure in Dry Tortugas sooty terns (Sterna fuscata). Page 627 in K.H. Voous, ed. Proc. l5th Int. Ornithol. Cong. The Hague, Netherlands. [Abstract.]
In 1969, approximately 50,000 pairs of sooty terns (Sterna fuscata) returned to nest in the Dry Tortugas colony in southern Florida, laid their eggs, and started incubating normally. When the authors arrived in mid-June to band young, they found 242 sooty chicks instead of the normal 20,000-25,000 chicks. About half the normal number of adults were still present, and they were markedly wild and restless. Apparently, only a few of the earliest-laid eggs had hatched, a few eggs were still being incubated, and the rest were deserted and contained dead, partly grown embryos. The colony also contained approximately 2,500 brown noddies (Anous stolidus) whose young hatched successfully. Most possible causes of the sooty terns' nesting failure were ruled out, with the exception of an overgrowth of island vegetation (which made it difficult for sooties to reach their nests in the more populous sectors) and frequent sonic booms by jet planes. The booms were almost a daily occurrence, and some were strong enough to shatter windows on adjoining Garden Key. Birds reacted to the occasional sonic booms of previous seasons by rising immediately in a "panic flight," circling over the island momentarily, and then usually settling down on their eggs again. The authors had no evidence that sonic booms caused physical damage to the sooty tern eggs, but felt that the strong booms occurred often enough to disturb the sooties' incubating rhythm and cause nest desertion. Actions were taken to curb planes breaking the sound barrier within range of the Tortugas, and much of the excess vegetation was cleared. In mid-May 1970, the birds appeared to be having a normal nesting season.
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Banner, A., and M. Hyatt. 1973. Effects of noise on eggs and larvae of two estuarine fishes. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 102:134-136.
A simple apparatus was devised to expose eggs and larval fishes to moderate and high noise levels (up to +20 dB/mb), holding other conditions constant. Viability of eggs and resulting sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus) larvae was significantly reduced in the noisier tank. Lethal effects of noise were apparently restricted to embryonic C. variegatus; fry exposed subsequent to hatch experienced no losses. Growth rates of C. variegatus and longnose killifish (Fundulus similis) larvae were significantly greater in the quieter tank under both 8L:16D and 16L:SD photoperiods. Fishes experiencing the longer photoperiod were somewhat shorter, but significantly heavier than those under the shorter photoperiod for the respective noise conditions.
Bastian, V.H. 1984. The influence of quality and sound pressure of acoustic signals on heart rate of chiffchaff (Phylloscopus collybita). Die Vogelwarte 32(4):249. [English summary.]
In a series of experiments, 21 male chiffchaffs (Phylloscopus collybita), wild-caught and hand-reared, were played back songs of their own and alien species to test the influence of the songs' sound pressure on heart rate. Hand-reared birds reacted more often to played-back songs than wild-caught birds. Neither group showed a preference for songs of its own or alien species. Songs with a sound pressure of 70 dB constantly elicited an alteration of heart rate and a conditioning for time after the end of the song's sequence. Songs with a sound pressure of 50 dB neither effected any conditioning nor a constant alteration of heart rate. The measurement of the heart rate for the chiffchaff did not appear to be a suitable method to quantify the efficiency of species-specific stimuli.
Beecher, M.D., P.K. Stoddard, and P. Loesche. 1985. Recognition of parents' voices by young cliff swallows. Auk 102:600-605.
Cliff swallow (Hirundo pyrrhonata) chicks, 9 and 18 days old, were played calls (2.1-4.2 kHz) of parents and unrelated (control) adults. Younger chicks showed no difference in the frequency of their antiphonal begging calls to parental versus control calls. The older, near fledgling chicks, however, responded significantly more to parental calls than to control calls; 78% of their total antiphonal calls were in response to parental playback calls: In these older chicks, the degree of preference calls correlated with the measured acoustic differences between the parent and control calls. Results indicated that cliff swallow chicks were able to recognize their parents by voice before they left the nest. Offspring recognition of parents is discussed as it relates to the evolution of parent-offspring recognition systems in general.
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Bell, W.B. 1972. Animal response to sonic booms. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 51:758-765.
This paper reviews reports and studies of animal response to sonic booms. Individual domestic or pet animals may react to a boom; a simple startle response is the most common reaction. However, specific reactions differ according to the species involved, whether the animal is alone, and perhaps whether the animal has been previously exposed to sonic booms. Trampling, moving, raising the head, stampeding, jumping, and running are among the reactions reported. Birds occasionally run, fly, or crowd. Reactions vary from boom to boom and are not predictable. Animal reactions to booms are similar to their reactions to low-altitude subsonic airplane flights, helicopters, and sudden noises. Conclusive data on effects of booms on production are not available. The effect of booms on eggs hatched under commercial conditions was examined in detail, and no effects on hatchability were found. However, a mass hatching failure of Dry Tortugas sooty terns (Sterna fuscata) occurred in 1969, and circumstantial evidence suggests that physical damage to the eggs by severe sonic booms caused by low-altitude supersonic flights was responsible. Observations on wild and zoo animals are limited, but those made on ungulates and some zoo animals revealed no reaction or only minimal and momentary reaction, such as raising the head, pricking the ears, and scenting the air. The author suggests further studies on the effects of sonic booms on each domesticated species and on wildlife in its native habitat.
Bender, A. 1977. Noise impact on wildlife: an environmental impact assessment. Pages 155-165 in Proceedings of the 9th Conference on Space Simulation. NASA(P-20007).
Due to scarcity of data, environmental impact assessments rarely consider the noise effects on wildlife. A complete and accurate assessment of a given impact should include an assessment of how animals will react to various noise levels of varying frequencies produced by the impact. However, this type of information is presently unavailable for most situations; at best, information can only be extrapolated from laboratory experiments and limited field observations. Various biological effects of noise on animals are briefly discussed and a systematic approach for an impact assessment is developed. Further research is suggested to fully quantify noise impact on individual species and their ecosystem.
Berger, J., D. Daneke, J. Johnson, and S.H. Berwick. 1983. Pronghorn foraging economy and predator avoidance in a desert ecosystem: implications for the conservation of large mammalian herbivores. Biol. Cons. 25:193-208.
Assumptions of optimal foraging theory were applied to the feeding ecology of pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) to address issues of immediate relevance to conservation biology in the Great Basin Desert of North America. The relationships between foraging efficiency and: (1) group size, (2) habitat, and (3) disturbance history were examined on two study sites. Individual foraging efficiency increased with group size, to a point, in both study sites, but animals in the disturbed (by hunting, mining, construction) area
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remained in larger groups despite foraging less profitably. The hypothesis that individuals in a disturbed environment remain together for enhanced protection from predators was supported and interpreted in the light of proposed habitat alterations in vast portions of this unique desert ecosystem.
Beulig, A. 1982. Social and experiential factors in the responsiveness of sharks to sound. Fl. Sci. 45(1):2-10.
The capacity of sharks to detect and respond to underwater sound has been well established. In previous studies, sharks were attracted most readily by broad-band, low-frequency, irregularly pulsed sounds of 20-100 Hz. To investigate the possibility that sharks are attracted to biologically significant sounds (such as accelerating schools of fish, injured and struggling fish, and feeding animals) that exist in the frequency range below 20 Hz, responses of juvenile lemon sharks (Negaprion brevirostris) to low-frequency (12.5 Hz), irregularly pulsed sounds were measured. The sharks were born in captivity and deprived of normal prey-capturing experience and social interaction with wild sharks. Initially, the juvenile sharks, tested individually, were not attracted to the low-frequency sounds, even after opportunities to capture living prey and to experience auditory stimulation associated with wounded, struggling fish were provided. When the sharks were tested in groups of three, their approach-response level indicated attraction to the low-frequency sound and results compared favorably with juvenile sharks that had species-typical feeding and rearing experience. Thus, the existence of a social factor in response to sounds was verified.
Black, B.B., M.W. Collopy, H.F. Percival, A.A. Tiller, and P.G. Bohall. 1984. Effect of low-level military training flights on wading bird colonies in Florida. Florida Coop. Fish Wildl. Res. Unit, Sch. For. Res. Conserv., University of Florida, Gainesville. Tech. Rep. 7. 190 pp.
The effect of low-level military training flights on the establishment, size, and reproductive success of wading bird colonies in Florida was studied. Based on indirect evidence of distribution and turnover rates in relation to jet training routes (<500 ft AGL) and military operations areas, there was no demonstrated effect of military activity on colony establishment or size on a statewide basis. Reproductive activity (including nest success, nestling survival, nestling mortality, and nesting chronology) was independent of F-16 overflights, but was related to ecological factors including location and physical characteristics of the colony, and climatology.
Blaxter, J.H.S., J.A.B. Gray, and E.J. Denton. 1981. Sound and startle responses in herring shoals. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 61:851-869.
Startle responses of shoaling herring (Clupea harengus) to various well-defined sound stimuli were investigated. A sound consisting of only one cycle of a sine wave was as effective a stimulus as a sound of the same amplitude lasting many cycles. The variability of response to a given stimulus was small. If a wave train took several cycles to reach its maximum amplitude,
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the threshold was raised considerably. If measured as pressures, the amplitudes of single-cycle stimuli needed for constant responses were almost independent of the duration of the stimuli (range tested: 2-40 ms). Observations on the directions in which fish moved shortly after a stimulus showed that most fish moved away from the source of sound, although the proportions of fish making "errors" did vary between different experimental arrangements. Most responses started with Mauthner-type bends; these were usually away from the source. With respect to the directionality of responses, single-cycle stimuli were as effective as those lasting many cycles. The authors conclude that herring can receive, in a transient sound, sufficient information to determine the amplitude of the sound and the general direction from which it comes, and they argue that, while the directional sense demands information on particle velocities and pressure, responses are triggered by pressure alone.
Blaxter, J.H.S., and D.E. Hoss. 1981. Startle response in herring: the effect of sound stimulus frequency, size of fish and selective interference with the acoustico-lateralis system. J. Marine Biol. Assoc. U.K. 61:871-879.
Herring (Clupea harengus) show a characteristic "startle" response when subjected to vibrational stimuli from a diaphragm in the wall of their tank. Threshold measurements on fish, 2.8-17 cm total length, tested at frequencies from 70 to 200 Hz showed that the response was elicited by sound pressures between 2 and 18 Pa, the most sensitive fish were in the length range from 8-11 cm. Intermediate-sized fish of 12-13 cm also responded to sounds from a loudspeaker in air above the tank; the mean threshold was about 5 Pa. The stimulus was thought to be the sound pressure rather than particle velocity component of the stimulus, with the gas-filled pro-otic bulla acting as part of the pressure detecting system. Pretreatment of fish by shock exposure increases of 4 atm to burst the bulla membrane increased the threshold about 10 times.
Bogert, C.M. 1960. The influence of sound on the behavior of amphibians and reptiles. Pages 137-320 in W.E. Lanyon and W.N. Tavolga, eds. Animal sounds and communications. Am. Inst. Biol. Sci., Washington, DC.
Literature on the influence of sound on the behavior of amphibians and reptiles is discussed in detail. Topics include mechanisms of sound production, hearing, and behavior related to calls of various species of amphibians and reptiles. Sonograms of several species are included.
Bond, J. 1971. Noise: its effect on the physiology and behavior of animals. Sci. Rev. 9(4):1-10.
This paper reviews 21 research studies on the effect of noise, primarily sonic booms and aircraft, on behavior and productive capacity of farm-raised animals. Most of the studies were initiated to obtain reliable data on which to base decisions on damage claims supposedly resulting from supersonic aircraft flying over animal installations. The author stresses planned studies
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to provide some solid answers about the effects of sonic booms on farm-raised animals, and on wildlife; a number of incidents have been recorded that indicate the effects may be more detrimental to some wildlife than to some domestic animals.
Bond, J., T.S. Rumsey, J.R. Menear, L.I. Colber, D. Kern, and B.T. Weinland. 1974. Effects of simulated sonic booms on eating patterns, feed intake, and behavioral activity of ponies and beef cattle. Pages 170-175 in Proceedings of the International Livestock Environment Symposium, University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng., St. Joseph, MI.
Eight ponies, 2 open cows, 6 cows with calves, and 24 steers were used in a series of trials to study the effects of simulated sonic booms (overpressure of 200 N/m2) on eating patterns, feed intake, and behavioral activity. All animals clearly showed a startle response after each boom. Eating patterns and feed intake were not affected by sonic booms.
Bond, J., C.F. Winchester, L.E. Campbell, and J.C. Webb. 1963. Effects of loud sounds on the physiology and behavior of swine. U.S. Dept. Agric., USDA-ARS Tech. Bull. No. 1280.
Pigs, boars, and sows were exposed to reproduced aircraft noise and other loud sounds to determine possible harmful effects on reproduction. The animals were exposed to sound frequencies varying from 100-120 dB. The conception rate of sows exposed to the recorded sounds was similar to that of unexposed sows. The number of pigs farrowed and the number of survivors were not influenced by exposure of the parents to loud sound during mating, or exposure of sows to reproduced sounds at 120 dB for 12 hours daily beginning 3 days before farrowing and continuing until their piglets were weaned.
Bondello, M.C. 1976. The effects of high-intensity motorcycle sounds on the acoustical sensitivity of the desert iguana, Dipsosaurus dorsalis. M.A. Thesis. California State University, Fullerton. 37 pp.
Acoustical sensitivity of desert iguana (Dipsosaurus dorsalis) was lost after exposure to high-intensity motorcycle sounds of 114 dBA for 1 and 10 hours. Animals tested immediately after sound exposure had a greater loss of activity than animals tested 7 days later. Permanent sensitivity losses were noted in lizards exposed for both 1 and 10 hours. Animals exposed for 10 hours suffered the severest permanent losses. The destructive sound dose was less than 1 hour, and the time in which loss was totally recovered exceeded 7 days.
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Borg, E. 1978. Peripheral vasoconstriction in the rat in response to sound. I. Dependence on stimulus duration. Acta Otolaryngol. 85: 153-157.
Arterial pulsations in the tail of the rat were recorded in response to noise bursts at 80 dB SPL with durations from 1 minute to several hours. Response during continuous stimulation habituated slowly and the time to reach normalization was more than 15 minutes.
Borg, E. 1978. Peripheral vasoconstriction in the rat in response to sound. II. Dependence on rate of change of sound level. Acta Otolaryngol. 85:332-335.
Arterial pulsations in the tail of the rat were measured in response to 80-dB SPL noise. Sound bursts of 4 s with rise times of l, 10, or 100 ms were equally efficient in eliciting vasoconstrictions. If the rise time was longer (1 s), the vasoconstriction was significantly smaller.
Borg, E. 1978. Peripheral vasoconstriction in the rat in response to sound. III. Dependence on pause characteristics in continuous noise. Acta Otolaryngol. 85:155-159.
The offset of a noise (80 dB SPL) was a weak stimulus for vasoconstriction in the tail of the rat. A vasoconstriction was regularly elicited by onset of sound after the end of a pause. The vasoconstriction was independent of pause duration varying from 10 ms to 100 s. For shorter pauses, the vasoconstriction was smaller. The results were discussed in relation to decay of sensation and partial masking effects.
Borg, E. 1979. Physiological aspects of the effects of sound on man and animals. Acta Otolaryngol. Suppl. 360:80-85.
This paper reviews some of the short-term and long-term physiological effects of sound on nonauditory body functions in man and laboratory rodents. Short-term effects depend closely on the acoustic properties of sound. Habituation is rapid for steady signals and slow for intermittent signals. Spontaneously hypertensive rats were more susceptible to inner ear injuries than normotensive rats. The potential role of individual variability in noise-induced hearing loss is discussed.
Borg, E. 1981. Physiological and pathogenic effects of sound. Acta Otolaryngol. Suppl. 381:7-68.
The acoustic influence of sound on various somatic functions (excluding the auditory system proper) and the possible effects on health, especially with regard to conditions in occupational life, were reviewed. While the literature survey showed a large number of contradictory ideas and information, there was little doubt that cardiac and vascular, as well as hormonal, somatic, and somato-sensory systems can be influenced by short unexpected bursts of
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sound. In some animal experiments, extremely intermittent sound pressure (85-105 dB SPL), day and night, caused a moderate rise of blood pressure. Sound gave pronounced short duration reactions in rats, but no chronic effects were observed during prolonged exposure. Species differences with respect to physiological reactions to sound exist and point towards a higher sensitivity in animals than humans. Any possible harmful effects of sound may be more related to information content of the sound--information pertaining to risky actions or masking significant information--rather than to sound itself.
Boutelier, C. 1968. The sonic bang: its effects on man and animals. Vet. Bull. 38:328. [Abstract.]
The physics of the sonic bang are described with reference to the factors influencing it and to the effects on man of sonic boom experiments carried out in the United States, United Kingdom, and France in 1961-1965. Complaints from farmers have concerned injuries to frightened animals, killing of young by mink and rabbits, suffocation in panic-struck fowls, reduced egg production, and pheasants breaking their eggs; no reactions have been observed in cows. Experiments on army dogs in France are reported in which the effects of the frequency and intensity of the bangs on behavior and cardiac rate were investigated. The author concludes that the effects of sonic bangs should be thoroughly studied in each domesticated species.
Brattstrom, B.H., and M.C. Bondello. 1983. Effects of off-road vehicle noise on desert vertebrates. Pages 167-206 in R.H. Webb and H.G. Wilshore, eds. Environmental effects of off-road vehicles. Impacts and management in arid regions. Springer-Verlag, New York.
This study involved measurement of natural and mechanized sound sources in the California desert and the effects of off-road vehicle (ORV) noise on the behavior and hearing physiology of three species of desert vertebrates: Mohave fringed-toed sand lizard (Uma scoparia), desert kangaroo rat (Dipodomys deserti), and Couch's spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus couchi). Because critical environmental sounds are often of relatively low intensity (snake crawls and owl swoops), sensitive hearing acuity is essential to the survival of these desert vertebrates. As a result of natural selection, they have evolved the ability to hear low-intensity, low-frequency sounds. The high forces required to operate heavy equipment and drive ORV's through sand and rock generate high-intensity sounds concentrated in the lower frequencies. These sounds carry farthest in desert air and are known to penetrate distances exceeding 4 km. Animals from quiet, protected sand dunes (Uma and Dipodomys) suffered immediate loss of hearing when exposed to ORV sounds (95 dBA). Recovery of hearing in Dipodomys was gradual and took several weeks, during which time the demonstrated auditory abilities of prey animals to detect predator approach dropped below levels requisite for survival. Recorded motorcycle sounds of intermediate intensity (95 dBA) elicited emergence of spadefoot toads, a potentially deleterious impact on the toad population. Emergence during the wrong season severely stresses toads. They become dehydrated from lack of water, their fat stores are depleted, potential prey base may be low or non-existent, and their reproductive cycle is changed. The authors recommend that
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ORV designated areas should be located away from all undisturbed desert habitats, critical habitats, and ranges of threatened, endangered, or otherwise protected habitats.
Bromley, M. 1985. Wildlife management implications of petroleum exploration and development in wildland environments. General Tech. Rep. INT-191. U.S. Dep. Agric., Forest Serv., Intermountain Res. Sta., Ogden, Utah. 42 pp.
Potential environmental disruptions caused by petroleum exploration, development, and production are discussed, including effects of these disruptions on wildlife behavior, habitat, and populations. Strategies are considered for minimizing and mitigating these adverse effects. The section on impacts includes a detailed outline/index referring to an annotated bibliography; general noise and aircraft noise are included in the index. Major wildlife groups discussed are ungulates, carnivores, waterfowl, raptors, waterbirds, and songbirds.
Broucek, J., M. Kovalcikova, and K. Kovalcik. 1983. The effect of noise on the biochemical characteristics of blood in dairy cows. Zivoc. Vyr. 28(4):261-267.
The physiological responses of 80 dairy cows to sound were studied. In the first trial, the sound of a tractor engine (97 dB) significantly increased glucose concentration and leucocyte counts and markedly reduced the level of hemoglobin in the blood. In another trial, pure-tone sound (1,000 Hz, 110 dB) increased circulating glucose, nonesterified fatty acids, and creatinin, and decreased the level of hemoglobin, with a slight decrease in thyroxin in plasma.
Brown, C.H. 1980. Primate directional hearing in noisy habitats. Am. Soc. Zool. 20(4):790. [Abstract.]
Minimum audible angles were behaviorally determined in macaque (Macaca spp.) monkeys. Testing was conducted in an anechoic chamber with synthetic stimuli that spectrally mimicked representative macaque vocalizations. Localization was tested in quiet and in the presence of a broad-band masker that simulated habitat noise. Results showed that the optimal signal structure for localization was dependent on the ambient noise condition; narrow-band signals were most accurately localized. The data suggested that in noisy habitats, narrow bands (heightening the signal-to-noise ratio) may be strategic for the design of signals favoring localization, as well as detection of sound. The acoustic structure of the position marking and rallying calls of some primates may reflect these factors.
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Bullock, T.H., D.P. Domning, and R.C. Best. 1980. Evoked brain potentials demonstrate hearing in a manatee (Trichechus inunquis). J. Mamm. 61:130-133.
Brain responses to arbitrary sounds were studied in a young manatee by the method of transcranial-averaged, evoked-potential recordings over the cerebrum. The frequency that gave the greatest response was approximately 3 kHz, but the maximum effectiveness was not sharply defined. Little systematic change in energy was recorded between 300 and 6,000 Hz as monitored by a microphone. Averaged evoked potentials were seen as low as 200 Hz and up to 35 kHz, but not at 40 kHz; possibly, the less effective stimuli were masked by ambient noise and the earphones were severely attenuating the higher frequencies used. Peak sensitivity (3 kHz) was in the range of vocalizations recorded in manatees (2-10 kHz).
Burger, J. 1981. Behavioral responses of herring gulls (Larus argentatus) to aircraft noise. Envir. Pollut. (Ser. A) 24:177-184.
The behavior of nesting and loafing herring gulls (Larus argentatus) was compared when the birds were exposed to supersonic transport, subsonic aircraft, and normal colony noises at Jamaica Bay National Recreational Area near Kennedy International Airport in New York. Colony noises and distant hum of traffic produced an average ambient noise level of 77 dBA; noise levels of jets averaged 91.8 dBA (non-SST) and 108.2 dBA (SST). No effects of subsonic aircraft on nesting gulls were noted. However, when supersonic transports flew over, significantly more nesting gulls flew from their nests, and they engaged in more fights when they landed compared with the other conditions. Many eggs were broken during these fights, and eggs were subsequently eaten by intruders. At the end of the incubation period, mean clutch sizes were lower in dense sections (more potential for fights) of the colony compared with solitary nesting pairs of gulls. For loafing gulls, significantly more birds flushed when planes flew over, compared with immediately before and after such plane noises.
Burger, J. 1983. Jet aircraft noise and bird strikes: why more birds are being hit. Environ. Pollut. (Ser. A) 30:143-152.
Birds are attracted to airports because of the absence of predators and the presence of roosting, bathing, drinking, and feeding areas. About 75%-90% of all civil aircraft strikes occur near airports, mostly while planes are taking off and landing. Birds are struck because they do not perceive the threat, or cannot avoid the plane once they perceive it. The number of bird strikes has increased with the faster speeds of aircraft. The noise levels of departing and landing aircraft were examined as a function of type of aircraft. In general, the wide-bodied aircraft (Boeing 747, L1011, DC10) were significantly quieter than the old-type, narrow-bodied aircraft (Boeing 707, 727). Noise levels varied when approaching planes were different distances from the test site. Noise levels did not rise significantly higher than predeparture levels until the planes were between 600 and 800 m from the test site; the planes traversed this distance in an average of 9-14 s. For landing planes, the narrow-bodied planes were significantly louder than the wide-bodied planes
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at touchdown, only 600 m from the test site. Wide-bodied planes had significantly more bird strikes than the narrow-bodied aircraft. These results indicate that birds have less warning of an approaching wide-bodied aircraft than they have for narrow-bodied aircraft. The bird's behavior of facing and flying into the wind (in the same direction that the airplane is moving) decreases the flight speed of the bird and increases the risk of a bird strike (particularly for the wide-bodied aircraft).
Busnel, R.G., and D. Molin. 1978. Preliminary results of the effects of noise on gestating female mice and their pups. Pages 209-247 in J.L. Fletcher and R.G. Busnel, eds. Effects of noise on wildlife. Academic Press, New York.
The effect of noise alone and noise plus two other stressors on reproduction of mice was studied. Direct effects of noise and indirect effects of stress reactions of the females were examined. Noise exposure consisted of 1 hour of recorded subway noise (approximately 105 dB SPL) played four times daily. No significant differences were found in mothers' weights, number of young born, number of young surviving weaning, or sex ratios of young. However, noise-exposed mice experienced a longer time interval between litters and lower weight gain of young, compared to the controls.
Busnel, R.G., and J.L. Briot. 1980. Wildlife and airfield noise in France. Pages 621-631 in J.V. Tobias, G. Jansen, and W.D. Ward, eds. Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Noise as a Public Health Problem. Am. Speech-Language-Hearing Assoc., Rockville, MD.
Observations of birds and mammals were made at several airports in France, and data also were collected from systematic hunts to reduce avian populations that were potential sources for collisions with aircraft. From 1973-1977, populations of gulls (Larus spp.), pigeons (Columba spp.), raptors, and crows (Corvus spp.) appeared to increase at the airports. Likewise, collisions between birds and aircraft increased during the same period. Analysis of the data revealed that observed fluctuations in animal populations were associated more with bioclimatic conditions than with the effects of noise.
Buwalda, R.J.A., and J. van der Steen. 1979. The sensitivity of the cod sacculus to directional and non-directional sound stimuli. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 64:455-604.
Results of recording saccular (labyrinth of the inner ear) microphone responses to underwater sound stimuli in cod (Gadus morhua) are presented. Stimuli with pressure to velocity ratios of -50 to +10 dB far field value were produced by standing wave manipulation. In high-velocity conditions a cosine dependence of microphonic levels on sound direction was found, compatible with a vector detector function for left and right sacculus. High pressure abolished this directional sensitivity. At 122 Hz and pressure/velocity ratios of -12 dB, pressure and velocity were equally effective, resulting in a microphonic null response at a phase lead of velocity by 90 degrees. The
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demonstrated directional sensitivity of various saccular receptor fields might, in principle, be a basis for horizontal as well as vertical directional hearing.
Calef, G.W., E.A. DeBock, and G.M. Lortie. 1976. The reaction of barren-ground caribou to aircraft. Arct. 29(4):201-212.
The responses of barren-ground caribou (Rangifer arcticus) to fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters were observed in the northern Yukon and Alaska. Escape or strong panic reactions were noted in 65%-75% of all groups observed from the fixed-wing aircraft at altitudes of up to 500 ft, but in only 10%-25% of the caribou observed from the helicopter. Caribou at river crossings reacted more to aircraft than traveling or feeding animals, and resting animals reacted least. Size of group, terrain, or vegetation type did not appear to affect the caribou's response to aircraft. Reactions during the calving season were stronger than during spring and fall migrations. The authors recommend flying at a minimum aircraft altitude of 500 ft during summer and fall migrations, and 1,000 ft at other times. Following the herd with a helicopter elicited extreme panic reactions, potentially dangerous to individuals in the herd.
Campbell, H. 1969. The effects of temperature on the auditory sensitivity of lizards. Physiol. Zool. 42:183-210.
The effects of temperature on the auditory sensitivity of selected species of lizards of the families Iguanidae, Gekkonidae, Anguidae, and Teidae were examined using tone pulses and click stimuli. The temperature of the maximum auditory sensitivity varied as a function of the natural thermal preference for each species. Sensitivity decreased as temperature was varied either above or below the range of preferred temperatures for normal activity. The lowest and highest temperatures at which a response could be elicited varied with the upper and lower thermal tolerance levels for the particular species. All species examined were most sensitive to sounds between 900-3,500 Hz. This frequency range was found to contain much potential information of ecological significance to the species (e.g., presence of predators, movement of insects). Average sensitivity loss of 10-20 dB/10 oC was found in the region of maximum sensitivity.
Capranica, R.R., and A.J.M. Moffat. 1975. Selectivity of the peripheral auditory system of spadefoot toads (Scaphiopus couchi) for sounds of biological significance. J. Comp. Physiol. 100:231-249.
The spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus couchi) is a primitive anuran that inhabits the arid regions of the southwestern U.S. The vocal repertoire of this toad consists of a mating call and a release call; the calls are distinct and differ in trill rate. Reception of airborne sound is achieved by means of a poorly differentiated region of skin on the head which serves as an eardrum.
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Most modern anurans have three types of auditory nerve fibers, but spadefoot toads have only two types: a low-frequency-sensitive (50-750) group and a high-frequency-sensitive (850-1,550 Hz) group.
Casady, R.B., and R.P. Lehmann. 1967. Response of farm animals to sonic booms. Studies at Edwards Air Force Base, June 6-30, 1966. Interim Rep., U.S. Dept. Agric., Agric. Res. Div., Beltsville, MD. 8 pp.
The effects of sonic booms on farm animal behavior and reproduction were investigated at Edwards Air Force Base in California. All animals had experienced sonic booms prior to the study. Observed behavioral reactions of animals to the booms were minimal except for avian species. Reactions were more pronounced from low-flying subsonic aircraft noise than from booms.
Chapman, C.J., and O. Sand. 1974. Field studies of hearing in two species of flatfish Pleuronectes platessa (L.) and Limanda limanda (L.) (Family Pleuronectidae). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 47A:371-385.
Field measurements of hearing in two flatfishes (Pleuronectes platessa, Limanda limanda) demonstrated that they are sensitive to sounds in the frequency range from 30 to 250 Hz with greatest sensitivity around 110-160 Hz. Both species were sensitive to particle motion. The sound pressure thresholds decreased by several decibels in the presence of an air-filled balloon, simulating a swim bladder. The mechanism of hearing in flatfish is discussed, and the authors suggest that the otolith organs in the labyrinth are the acoustic receptors. Comparison between hearing data for flatfish and for the cod (Gadus morhua) suggests that differences in performance may be attributed to the accessary role of the swimbladder in the hearing of cod.
Chesser, R.K., R.S. Caldwell, and M.J. Harvey. 1975. Effects of noise on feral populations of Mus musculus. Physiol. Zool. 48(4): 323-325.
House mice (Mus musculus) were captured from two similar fields--one rural and one located near an airport. The only apparent difference between the two fields was the presence or absence of low-flying aircraft. Airport field noise levels varied from 80-120 dB, while rural field levels varied from 80-85 dB. Mice from the airport field had significantly larger adrenal glands. To determine if noise was a causative factor, mice collected from the rural field were exposed to recorded jet noise at 105 dB in the laboratory. These mice also developed significantly larger adrenals than control mice.
Clark, C.W. 1976. Acoustic communication and behavior of southern right whales, Eubalaena australis. Natl. Geogr. Res. Rep. 17:897-907.
The sounds made by southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) are not random, but are intimately related to the social context and activity of the animals. A resting whale does not call very often but sometimes makes long moans while exhaling through its nostrils. A swimming whale that is alone and
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seeking other whales makes "up-calls." Excited whales make high calls, hybrid calls, pulsive calls, flipper slaps, and loud forceful blow sounds. Not yet determined is whether some variable in the contact call encodes for the identity of the caller, and whether the more complex associations among variables in the sounds from active whale encode for some subtle parameters of the social context.
Coombs, S., and A.N. Popper. 1982. Structure and function of the auditory system in the clown knifefish, Notopterus chitala. J. Exp. Biol. 97:225-239.
Hearing sensitivity and the anatomy of the auditory system in the clown knifefish (Notopterus chitala) were studied using behavioral techniques and scanning electron microscopy. While many structural features of the inner ear were similar to those found in other teleost species, the saccular endorgan in the knifefish was unusual in having three discrete epithelial regions. These regions could be distinguished from one another by regional differences in portions of the otolith overlaying them, by hair-cell orientation patterns, and by their position relative to the swimbladder. The knifefish was found to be able to detect sounds from 100 to 1,000 Hz, and best sensitivity occurred at 500 Hz, where the mean threshold was -30 dB (1 microbar). For frequencies from 300 to 700 Hz, there was substantial variation in threshold values and indications of a bimodal distribution of thresholds. One hypothesis that may tie the ultrastructural and behavioral results together is that the ear of the knifefish is anatomically and functionally differentiated to mediate independent detection of two sound properties: changes in pressure and particle motion.
Copukuh, M.A., and A.H. Lebedea. 1985. title? J. 1? No. 9:45-1? [English summary.]
The audiograms of three fish species (Pleurogrammus monopterygius, Liopsetta obscura, and Pleuronectes stellatus) without swim bladders were determined under laboratory conditions by the method of conditioned reflex. The fishes perceived signals within a frequency of 300-500 Hz with maximum sensitivity of 63-125 Hz. The optimum range of discovering signals in noise was 20-125 Hz, where acoustic maximum exceeded spectral noise of 17-23 dB.
Cottereau, P. 1978. Effect of sonic boom from aircraft on wildlife and animal husbandry. Pages 63-79 in J.L. Fletcher and R.G. Busnel, eds. Effects of noise on wildlife. Academic Press, New York.
The introduction of commercial and military supersonic aircraft has raised the question of whether sonic booms should be considered as severe environmental pollution, with adverse effects on humans, animals, and structures. Much of the present knowledge is based on occasional booms, many of which have resulted in complaints and claims. Although probably not always legitimate, these complaints indicate that concern has developed about the effects of this new environmental factor, and this concern should stimulate intensified research. However, only a few investigations under real or
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simulated conditions have been undertaken so far to try and elucidate the possible effects of sonic booms; these studies are reviewed, and the physical aspects of sonic booms are discussed. Behavioral observations of domestic animals appear to indicate that sonic booms and subsonic low-level flight noise evoke startle reactions, but have little effect on the animals' overall behavior. Animals also appear to adapt to the disturbances. Avian species seem to be more affected than mammals; adverse effects on reproduction may result from sonic boom exposures of colonially nesting birds. The greatest research need is for critical observations of the response of aggregations of various social mammals and birds to sonic booms of measured overpressure and duration. Cooperative research in this area, with a large participation of biologists, is recommended.
Cox, M., P.H. Rogers, A.N. Popper, W.M. Saidel, and R.R. Fay. 1986. Frequency regionalization in the fish ear. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 79(Suppl.l):S80. [Abstract.]
The exact mechanism for frequency discrimination by bony fishes is unknown; however, results of another experimental study suggested the existence of frequency regionalization on the saccular macula in the ears of codfish (Gadus morhua). Frequency regionalization is similar to the place mechanisms in the cochlea in that different frequencies stimulate different areas of the saccular and lagenar maculae. In this study, goldfish (Carassius auratus) were subjected to a single-frequency tone, about 140-150 dB above threshold, for 2 hours in order to damage areas sensitive to that frequency. During this exposure, the fish was constrained inside a waveguide with controllable acoustic pressure and particle velocity characteristics. The extent of regionalization on the maculae was determined based on electrophysiologically measured degradation of frequency tuning and hair cell damage found in examination under a scanning electron microscope. In addition, the separate effects of acoustic pressure and particle velocity on frequency regionalization were compared.
D'Arms, E., and D.R. Griffin. 1972. Balloonists' reports of sounds audible to migrating birds. Auk 89:269-279.
The l9th century balloonists often noted that commonly occurring sounds were audible, at least under some conditions, up to altitudes of 3,000 m or more. The cackling of geese, the singing of frogs and insects, and the sound of wind blowing through woods were commonly heard up to roughly 1,000 m. Breaking waves and the sounds of running streams were frequently noted. Thus, migrating birds may well be able to hear characteristic sounds from the ground or water beneath them. A bird might be able to detect and correct for its wind drift, even without visual cues from the surface of the earth, by localizing sound sources and comparing its actual progress with its heading. Early balloonists studied ground echoes of shouts and other loud sounds generated in the balloon, and they sometimes noted much louder and clearer echoes from lakes or streams than fields or woods; a sonic altimeter was later developed for use from airplanes. This suggests the possibility that nocturnal migrants could employ a crude form of echolocation, provided that their flight
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calls are loud enough to generate audible echoes from the surface. No data are available on the degree to which sounds originating at the surface (or echoes from the surface) differ in acoustic spectrum depending upon the direction from which they are heard. If breaking waves or other sounds generated by the wind sound different according to their direction, this could theoretically provide directional information to a migrating bird.
Dade County Aviation Department. 1977. Site 14 and the Endangered Species Act: an assessment of the interaction of the Florida Everglades kite, its critical habitat and the operation of an airport at Site 14. Dade Co. Aviation Dep., Miami, Florida. Unpubl. Rep. 57 pp.
Site 14, located in north Dade County, Florida, was proposed as the relocation site for the Everglades Jetport Training Facility in 1975. At that time, no endangered or threatened species were identified as present on or near the site. In 1976 and 1977, a small colony of Everglades kites (Rostrhamus sociabilis), an endangered species, nested on a willow (Salix spp.) island 3 miles west of the proposed runway. A study was undertaken to ascertain the possible effects of the jetport facility on nearby kite populations, including an assessment of habitat and foraging and soaring behavior. In addition, three airports in South America that are in close proximity to marshes with kite populations were visited. Results of the study indicated that (1) the area under the approaches to the proposed runway at Site 14 was composed of less than 25% typical kite foraging habitat, (2) kites are nomadic in their foraging habits and do not aggregate in large numbers in any one foraging area, (3) foraging flights of kites were under 100-200 ft elevation, (4) high-altitude soaring by kites during the nonbreeding season was infrequent and of relatively short duration, (5) kites observed under the approach path to a runway of a nearby airport were oblivious to frequent jet traffic, and (6) kites observed at the South American airports appeared to be tolerant to the jet traffic, and there were no reported aircraft strikes of kites. The report concludes that the construction and operation of an airport at Site 14, with adequate land-use and development restrictions or safeguards, was not expected to jeopardize the continued existence of the Everglades kite or result in the destruction or adverse modification of the critical habitat as defined for the Endangered Species Act of 1973.
Dancer, A., and Franke, R. 1972. Influence of pressure rise time of an N shock wave, simulating the sonic boom, on the cochlear and acoustically evoked potentials of the guinea pig. Natl. Tech. Inf. Serv., Springfield, VA. 45 pp. [In French.]
The influence of pressure rise times of forward and backward fronts of N shock waves simulating sonic booms on the cochlear and acoustically evoked potentials of the guinea pig were investigated. Experimental results have shown that at a given boom intensity, the front duration has an influence on the maxima amplitudes of cochlear and acoustically evoked potentials and, therefore, on the transmitted sound intensity. The authors concluded that to characterize a sonic boom, it is necessary to determine not only its amplitude (or intensity), but also its forward and backward fronts.
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Dancer, A., R. Franke, G. Evrard, B. Adam, and L. Oudin. 1973. Pressure variation effects on the guinea pig middle ear under impulse sound excitation. Natl. Tech. Inf. Serv., Springfield, VA. Rep. No. N75-21002/lst. 33 pp. [In French.]
Displacements of the eardrum/cochlea in the guinea pig under shock wave and ordnance sounds excitation were studied by middle ear pressure variation measurements. The time to maximum displacement was measured together with the effect of sound intensity and duration of the first positive wave phase. The maximum elongation was dependent only on sound intensity, and its value was approximately 15 microns/mbar. For a specific waveform, a frequency analysis was performed that showed attenuation of frequencies below 5 kHz and a resonance at 6.7 kHz.
Dancer, A., R. Franke, G. Evrard, C. Zeller, and P. Massard. 1972. Determination of lesion threshold in the guinea pig auditory area due to sonic boom. Natl. Tech. Inf. Serv., Springfield, VA. Rep. No. N73-27966/3. 64 pp. [In French.]
The effects of the sonic boom intensity (20-50 mbar, 300 msec) and repetition frequency on the guinea pig auditory sensation areas, especially on eardrum and middle ear, were investigated. The histological study of the inner ear and audiometric tests have determined the lesion threshold of sonic booms at 30 mbar. A slight auditory perception loss was noticed after exposure to a sonic boom, and slight lesions of eardrum after exposure to frequent booms.
Dancer, A., R. Franke, and H.J. Pfeifer. 1974. Laser interferometric studies of the guinea pig eardrums displacement under various acoustic excitations: pure sounds, N waves, shock waves, etc. Natl. Tech. Inf. Serv., Springfield, VA. 43 pp.
The guinea pig eardrum displacement at umbilicus level under various acoustic stimulation was studied by laser interferometry. Pure sound induced displacements of order 2.4 micron/mbar for frequencies between 30 and 1,000 Hz. At 10 kHz, these displacements are reduced by a factor of 10. High amplitude pressure variations induced a reduction of the ration displacement/overpressure from 4 mbar upwards. This ration increased for underpressures in excess of 2 mbar. Recordings were performed following N wave stimulations of the sonic boom type and double positive pulses. The umbilicus closely followed pressure variations. The overpressure duration has a major influence on umbilicus displacement for values above and below 1-8 ms, where displacement increases as a function of duration.
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Dancer, A., M. Schaffar, M. Hartmann, P. Cottereau, and J. Pin. 1973. Effects of sonic bangs on the behavior of fish (Lebistes reticulatus or guppy). Institut Franco-Allemand de Recherches, St. Louis, France. 29 pp. [English abstract.]
A comparison of the effect of sonic booms on guppies (Lebistes reticulatus) revealed that fish subjected to sonic booms produced by a generator exhibited only observed reactions of short duration (0.5 s), which, appeared for intensities higher than 1 mbar.
Davies, D.H., J.P.A. Lochner, and E.D. Smith. 19_ Preliminary investigations on the hearing of sharks. Ocean. Res. Inst., Durban, South Africa. Invest. Rep. 7. 10 pp.
A number of sharks (Carcharinus obsurus, C. maculipinnis, C. leucas, and Sphyrna lewini) were conditioned to respond to pure tones and octave bands of random noise, and their thresholds of hearing were determined for those stimuli. Sharks responded to pure tones of 50-7,000 Hz and to octave bands with frequencies varying from 64-3,000 Hz. Results suggested that sharks are not able to discriminate between frequencies and that recognition of signals is based on the amplitude versus time characteristics. Apparently, sharks can accurately determine the direction of a sound source.
Davis, P. 1967. Ravens' response to sonic bang. Brit. Birds 60:370-371.
The author noted the response of a population of ravens (Corvus corax) to a sonic boom in central Wales. Three or four ravens were idling in the up-currents over a high rock spur between two streams. When the silence was shattered by a "very loud sonic bang as a jet aircraft passed overhead," the author heard ravens calling agitatedly and saw small groups flying from all directions and converging over the crest of the spur. In about 5 minutes, 62-70 ravens were present. They were flapping, soaring, and chasing each other, with a great deal of noise, and often settled briefly on the rocks. Ravens from at least 2 or 3 miles around may have been involved. Within 10 minutes, they started to disperse again, and the calling died down considerably. About 30 ravens were still soaring over the hill when the author left the area, an hour after the boom.
Dooling, R. 1978. Behavior and psychophysics of hearing in birds. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 64(Suppl.l):S4. [Abstract.]
Psychophysical investigations of hearing in a number of avian species over the last decade have added significantly to the knowledge of hearing capability characteristics of this vertebrate group. Behavioral measures of absolute auditory sensitivity in a wide variety of bird species show a region of maximum sensitivity between 1 and 5 kHz, with a rapid decrease in sensitivity at higher frequencies. On the basis of this general measure, birds fall between two other major vertebrate groups: reptiles and mammals. Discrimination and masking data from birds include measures of frequency,
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intensity, and duration difference limens: critical ratios, critical bands, and psychophysical tuning curves. Data also are available on temporal summation, temporal resolving power, and temporary threshold shift from noise exposure. Taken together, these data suggest that, in the region of 1-5 kHz, birds show a level of hearing sensitivity similar in most respects to that found for the most sensitive members of the class Mammalia, with avian performance clearly inferior above and below this range of frequencies. Possible exceptions to this general picture include the echolocating oilbird (Steatornis caripensis) and growing evidence that pigeons (Columba spp.) are sensitive to infrasound at moderate intensity levels. The relation among critical ratio, critical band, and intensity difference limen measures in the parakeet (Melopsittarus sp.) is similar to that described for the human, but the pattern of masking as a function of frequency is dramatically different from that observed in mammals. Examples of a correspondence between hearing sensitivity and vocalizations can be demonstrated in a number of species.
Dooling, R.J., and M.H. Searcy. 1981. Amplitude modulation thresholds for the parakeet (Melopsittacus undulatus). J. Comp. Physiol. 143:383-388.
Parakeets were tested for the ability to detect sinusoidal amplitude modulation of broad-band noise. Instrumental avoidance conditioning and a psychophysical modified method of limits procedure were used to measure the threshold for detecting amplitude modulation at 10 modulation frequencies between 2 and 2.048 Hz. Below about 40 Hz, modulation threshold is independent of modulation rate and noise level. Above 40 Hz, modulation threshold decreases with modulation frequency at the rate of 3 dB/octave. These results are somewhat different from amplitude modulation functions in humans, which suggests different degrees of temporal resolving power in birds and humans. Thresholds for changes in modulation rate are 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than pure tone frequency difference thresholds.
Dufour, P.A. 1980. Effects of noise on wildlife and other animals: review of research since 1971. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA 550/9-80-100. 97 pp.
This report reviews significant studies completed since EPA issued its first report concerning noise effects on wildlife in 1971. The report covers laboratory animals, domestic animals, and wildlife and is presented in four major categories of noise effects: auditory physiological, masking, nonauditory physiological, and behavioral.
Dunnet, G.M. 1977. Observations on the effects of low-flying aircraft at seabird colonies on the coast of Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Biol. Conserv. 12:55-63.
The greatly increased use of helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft to support the exploration and exploitation of oilfields in the North Sea gives rise to concern about possible disturbance to seabirds breeding in the flight paths. The observations reported in this paper were made at a mixed colony of
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fulmars (Fulmarus qlacialis), shags (Phalacrocorax aristotelis), herring gulls (Larus argentatus), kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla), guillemots (Uria aalge), razorbills (Alca torda), and puffins (Fratercula artica) breeding on the Buchan Cliffs about 40 km north of Aberdeen, on 2 days during egg-laying and early nestling stages of the breeding season. The birds in attendance at nests or nesting ledges were counted before and after the passage of aircraft, and general observations were made when the planes were overhead. The number of identifiable nests with 0, l, or 2 adults was noted because disturbance might be most sensitively detected by the departure of nonincubating, brooding adults. No evidence was found to suggest that aircraft flying at heights of about 100 m above the cliff-top affected the attendance of incubating and brooding birds, and there was only a slight indication that a few of the "second adults" at kittiwake nests may have flown off. Groups of kittiwakes resting on nearby cliffs or on the sea did take to the air in response to the planes, but they also did so frequently in the course of the day with no obvious cause. The author stressed that these findings cannot be extrapolated to other species of seabirds or to different conditions.
Edwards, R.G., A.B. Broderson, R.W. Barbour, D.F. McCoy, and C.W. Johnson. 1979. Assessment of the environmental compatibility of differing helicopter noise certification standards. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. 58 pp.
To evaluate the impact of relaxed noise emission standards for helicopters restricted to remote regions, areas along the gulf coast of Louisiana and Texas (identified as those areas in the U.S. characterized by the "heaviest of helicopter activity") were visited and environmental noise measurements made for miscellaneous helicopter flyovers and for activity adjacent to heliports. Questionnaires were sent to wildlife refuge directors, Forest Service employees, and National park superintendents in States having the highest helicopter densities. In addition, responses of several species of wildlife to helicopter noise levels were briefly studied at the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge in Texas. Results showed that an average of 10 flyovers/hr produced a 1-hr energy-average sound level (leq) of 54.5 dBA, a level 2.5 dBA above ambient. An average of 34 events/hr adjacent to heliports produced a 1-hr leq of 63.1 dBA, which was 13.3 dBA above ambient. If emission levels were increased by 10 dBA, projected leq (24) values of 57.0 and 71.2 dBA resulted for the flyover and heliport conditions, respectively. Sixty-four percent of those responding (272) to the questionnaire stated that they had not observed a problem from helicopter noise. Of those that had observed such a problem, interference with "rest and relaxation" and with "wildlife" were most frequently mentioned. The responses of different wildlife species to helicopter noise varied considerably. For example, Canada geese (Branta canadensis) and snow geese (Chen caerulescens) appeared to be more disturbed by helicopter noise than turkey vultures (Cathartes aura), pronghorns (Antilocapra americana), coyotes (Canis latrans), and raptors.
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Ehret, G. 1977. Comparative psychoacoustics: perspectives of peripheral sound analysis in mammals. Naturwissenchaften 64:461-470.
Psychophysical data on hearing in man, domestic cats, guinea pigs, house mice (Mus musculus), dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), and horsehoe bats (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum) are summarized. Data are correlated to the anatomy and physiology of the ear. Common mechanisms of sound transfer and analysis in the acoustic system, with emphasis on the auditory periphery, are discussed.
Ellis, D.H. 1981. Responses of raptorial birds to low-level military jets and sonic booms. Results of the 1980-1981 Joint USAF-USFWS Study. Natl. Tech. Inf. Serv., Springfield, VA. NTIS ADA108-778. 59 pp.
Data on the likely effects of low-level jets and sonic booms on nesting peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) and other raptors were gathered at aeries in Arizona. Responses to extremely frequent and nearby jet aircraft were often minimal and never associated with reproductive failure. Nesting success and site reoccupancy rates were high for all aeries. No significant changes in heart rate response were noted. The birds observed were noticeably alarmed by the noise stimuli (82-114 dBA), but the negative responses were brief and never productivity limiting.
Ellis, N.D., I.B. Rushwald, and H.S. Ribner. 1975. A one-man portable sonic boom simulator. J. Sound and Vibration 40(1):41-50.
A portable sonic boom simulator was developed for field tests on wildlife. Previous portable simulators were mobile only by truck or trailer; the present device weighs 24.4 pounds (including peripherals) and is easily carried by one person. It consists of a shock tube charged by a compressed air bottle, coupled to an exponential horn. A low-pass acoustic filter is mounted in the horn, and serves to increase the ultra-short rise time of the shock waves (about 10 us) to a value more nearly characteristic of sonic booms (about 0.5 ms). The simulated sonic booms mimic the loudness of typical sonic booms and have comparable overpressure and rise times. Calibration of the effective loudness is by subjective comparison with idealized standard sonic booms (N-waves). The calibration is carried out in the recently developed UTIAS loudspeaker-driven sonic boom booth. The loudspeakers accurately reproduce the signatures, which have been tape recorded; the signatures are judged against the N-waves for equal loudness by an observer in the booth. The outcome is expressed as equivalent sonic boom overpressure, as a function of shock-tube driver pressure and observer position relative to the portable simulator.
Ely, F., and W.E. Peterson. 1941. Factors involved in the ejection of milk. J. Dairy Sci. 14(3):211-223.
The literature on the factors involved in the ejection of milk by dairy cows is reviewed. The authors also report the results of experiments to determine the relationship between the nervous system and milk ejection, and
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the effects of fright (caused by exploding paper bags) and adrenalin on this relationship. Fright caused by an unusual event could reflexly stimulate the natural production of adrenalin, which results in cessation of milk ejection.
Espmark, Y. 1972. Behaviour reactions of reindeer exposed to sonic booms. Deer 2:800-802.
Reindeer (Ranqifer tarandus) in an enclosure were exposed to 36 sonic booms (varying from 35-702 Pa) for 3 days. The animals had experienced occasional exposure to sonic booms. No clear differences in reaction were seen between low and high boom strengths. Moderate reactions were found irrespective of boom level. Common reactions were slight startle responses, raising of head, pricking the ears, and scenting the air. Panic reactions or extensive changes in behavior of individual animals were not observed.
Espmark, Y., L. Falt, and B. Falt. 1974. Behavioral responses in cattle and sheep exposed to sonic booms and low-altitude subsonic flight noise. Vet. Rec. 94(6):106-113.
Twenty cattle and 18 sheep were exposed to 28 sonic booms (80-370 Pa) and 10 low-altitude (50-200 m AGL) subsonic flights during 4 days. Noise levels varied from 75-109 dBA. No adverse effects were observed and behavioral reactions were considered minimal. Both species were less disturbed near the end of the test period, indicating the animals had adapted to the disturbance. Adaption probably also masked some of the dose-response relationships that were more obvious in cattle than in sheep. The authors suggested that observed reactions (e.g., backward jumping) may be more dangerous for tied-up animals, and that the effects of disturbances might be more severe for animals under certain physiological conditions, such as gestation.
Ewbank, R. 1977. The effects of sonic booms on farm animals. Vet. Annual 17:296-306.
The nature of aircraft noises and the sonic boom is described. The possible effects of sonic booms on farm livestock and other animals are reviewed. Brief discussions are included on cattle, sheep, horses, pigs, mink, and poultry. The author recommends further investigations on the effect of sonic booms on dairy cows, laying poultry, and horses.
Fay, R.R. 1974. Sound reception and processing in the carp: saccular potentials. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 49A:29-42.
Saccular potentials to sound simulation were recorded from two locations in the endolymphatic system of the carp (Cyprinus carpio). The frequency response function recorded from the sacculus is essentially identical with the behavioral function for the goldfish (Carassius auratus), confirming that the sacculus is the primary acoustic detector of the ostariophysine ear. Measurements of the nonlinearities in the saccular potentials illustrate the complex
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organization of the saccular macula, and a possible mechanism for signal-to-noise improvement and frequency analyzing capability, which is independent of a cochlear-like spatial analysis, is suggested.
Fay, R., and A. Feng. 1983. Mechanisms for directional hearing among non-mammalian vertebrates. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 73(Suppl. 1):S18. [Abstract.]
Adaptations for directional hearing among nonmammalian vertebrates are diverse, and include morphological and physiological mechanisms at both peripheral and central levels, as well as behavioral strategies. While some of these mechanisms (such as interaural differences in time and spectrum based on head size) operate to some extent among all terrestrial vertebrates, the nonmammals show several additional special features. Fishes can locate sound in space and use directional filtering to improve signal-to-noise ratios, based on the directional characteristics of hair cells themselves, and on the patterns of hair cell orientation both within and between receptor organs (saccule, lagena, and possibly the utricle). In addition, fishes may code the phase relations between particle acceleration and the sound pressure waveforms to solve 180-degree ambiguity problems. The terrestrial nonmammals are faced with similar problems in sound localization, including a relatively small interaural distance and generally poor high-frequency hearing. However, anurans and birds localize sounds well. The anuran ear shows a complex, frequency-dependent directionality; the wide coupling of the two middle cavities via the mouth lead to acoustic interactions that enhance interaural time and intensity differences. This type of mechanism is thought to operate in some birds as well, particularly at low frequencies. Some owls may use more "mammalian" mechanisms for azimuthal localization in addition to a vertical asymmetry in ear position that gives rise to interaural cues for elevation.
Fay, R.R., W.A. Ahroon, and A.A. Orawski. 1978. Auditory masking patterns in the goldfish (Carassius auratus): psychophysical tuning curves. J. Exper. Biol. 74:83-100.
The masking effects of tones on the detection auditory signals were studied in goldfish (Carassius auratus) using the psychophysical tuning-curve paradigm. For signals below 350 Hz, masking is an inverse function of the frequency separation between masker and signal, a finding consistent with previous masking studies on fishes, birds, and mammals. For signals above 350 Hz, masking peaks occur both in the 350-Hz region and at the frequency of the signal. Quantitative comparisons with recent neural tuning curves for goldfish saccular neurones suggest frequency selectivity below 350 Hz, but by a neural analysis of temporal patterns above this range.
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Fell, R.D., C.J. Ellis, and D.R. Griffith. 1976. Thyroid responses to acoustic stimulation. Environ. Res. 12:208-213.
Male and female rats were subjected to noise stress (95 dBA) presented in 15-min intervals, 8 hours per day for 12 weeks. Body weights and thyroid I-131 uptake values were recorded. Relative body weight gain rates were significantly reduced. Thyroid I-131 uptake values were low for both sexes, and a positive correlation between the time of decreased iodine uptake and, suppressed weight gain rates was noted.
Fleischner, T.L., and S. Weisberg. 1986. Effects of jet aircraft activity on bald eagles in the vicinity of Bellingham International Airport. Unpublished Report, DEVCO Aviation Consultants, Bellingham, WA. 12 pp.
In 1985, Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) began jet aircraft flights into Bellingham International Airport, Whatcom County, Washington. A biological assessment was undertaken to (1) determine the status of the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) within the area near the airport, (2) evaluate eagle habitat in the area, (3) evaluate any effects of jet flights on eagle behavior and population dynamics, and (4) suggest recommendations for mitigation of impact, if appropriate. The project area contains critical bald eagle habitat, and bald eagles are residents throughout the year. During field observations, bald eagles reacted to the presence of aircraft in the study area during 12% of the eagle-aircraft observations. A differential eagle response to aircraft types was observed; helicopters and small jets had the greatest effect on bald eagles. Eagles reacted to PSA jets 11% of the time, to propeller airplanes 2% of the time, to helicopters 40% of the time, and to small jet aircraft 55% of the time. Observed reactions of eagles to PSA jets consisted of turning the head to look at the jet (5% of the observations), and flying from a perch site (5%). Eagle reactions to PSA jets were twice as frequent when the eagle-jet distance was one-half mile or less. Present level of jet flights appeared to have minor effects on bald eagles within the project area. Disturbances such as repeated flight from perches and interrupted eagle interactions would have a negative effect on bald eagles if they occurred more frequently. The authors made several recommendations to minimize the impact of jet aircraft, including location of flight paths to avoid eagle habitat and minimizing the number of jet flights per day.
Fletcher, J.L. 1980. Effects of noise on wildlife: a review of relevant literature 1971-1978. Pages 611-620 in J.V. Tobias, G. Jansen, and W.D. Ward, eds. Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Noise as a Public Health Problem. Am. Speech-Language-Hearing Assoc., Rockville, MD.
The author reviewed the scientific literature published since 1971 on the effects of noise on wildlife and other animals. Relatively few new studies were found. These studies are briefly discussed. Further research needed to answer critical questions about the effects of noise on animals includes studies of (1) individual species, as individual animals and in social groups (herds, flocks, etc.), that examine the acoustic nature (frequency, intensity, temporal patterns, etc.) of critical events (mating, territoriality, alarm,
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nurture, etc.); (2) the spectrum of environmental sound and of an animal's hearing sensitivity; (3) effects of noise on a declining animal population, regardless of the cause of the population decline; (4) stressor effects of noise with other stresses on an animal; (5) long- and short-term noise effects; and (6) possible critical sound propagation in the field.
Fletcher, J.L., M.J. Harvey, and J.W. Blackwell. 1971. Effects of noise on wildlife and other animals. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Rept. NTID 300.5. 74 pp.
Literature for the period 1950-1971 on the effects of noise on animals was reviewed. Studies on laboratory and domestic animals and wildlife, including mammals, birds, fish, and insects, are summarized. Only the relevant and readily obtainable reports from the foreign literature are included. Suspected effects of noise on wildlife, both direct effects and interference with social signals, are discussed. The authors stated that "few if any of the reported or suggested effects of noise on animals would benefit the animal or increase his chances for survival; on the other hand, some of them might possibly lead to his death or decrease his chances for survival." The authors recommended research programs devoted to the study of effects of noise on wildlife existing in their native habitat under normal conditions, concurrent with careful examination of physiological and other physical and chemical effects of noise on animals. An important consideration in planning research should be the frequencies to be investigated, as well as the sound levels. Frequencies that are inaudible to humans (ultrasound) are well within the audible range of many animal species.
Franke, R., C. Lursat, and G. Evrard. 1971. Auditory loss and recuperation of guinea pigs after exposure to a sonic boom, sonic boom produced by the ISL generator. Natl. Tech. Inf. Serv, Springfield, VA. Rep. No. N72-31097. 25 pp.
The auditory loss threshold provoked by the TSS Concorde sonic boom N-type shock wave was evaluated from guinea pig auditory reflexes. An audiometric method based on the Preyer reflect threshold measurement was used. The experimental results showed that a slight and temporary effect is noticeable for a 40 m/bar pressure wave (40 times more intense than the sonic boom).
Frazier, A.R. 1972. Noise survey, F-105 overflights, Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge and vicinity, Fort Sill, OK. U.S. Dept. Commerce, Natl. Tech. Inf. Serv., Springfield, VA. 62 pp.
In 1972, The U.S. Air Force (USAF) proposed using an area near Fort Sill, Oklahoma, for F-105 overflights. The range has been operational since 1957 and is used to fire a variety of weapons, including Honest John Missiles. The projected number of single F-105 passes over the target area would be a maximum of 248 per day, during 1000-1300 h and 1500 h. During use of the range, aircraft would pass a fixed ground location every 30-45 seconds. The range would not be used for supersonic flight. The proposed flights would be
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5,000-12,000 ft AGL at 300-400 knots over the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge (WMWR), and 100-1,000 ft AGL at 450 knots above the weapons range. On 29 August 1972, the USAF Environmental Health Laboratory conducted a noise survey to quantify environmental noise levels produced by F-105 flights over two sites at the adjacent WMWR at two towns, 1.5 and 3.0 miles from the flight line. Several different instruments, including sound level recorders, octave band analyzers, tape recorders, calibraters, and microphones, were used to record the noise level data at the four sites. The maximum noise level measured at these sites was below 90 dBA. Effects of the flyovers on wildlife were not specifically evaluated, but general observations of buffalo (Bison bison) near the noise measurement equipment indicated that the animals "appeared oblivious" to the aircraft noise and continued grazing throughout all aircraft passes. An area of concern identified in the survey was that the flyover noise may cause classroom distractions at the nearby Job Corps Center on the WMWR. The range of Preferred Speech Interference Levels (PSIL) produced by the F-105 overflights was in the same range of PSIL's produced by power lawn mowers cutting grass near the Center's buildings. The report states that architectural/engineering solutions can be used to compensate for the effects of the F-105 overflights on noise levels of the Center if severe problems develop. Generally, any adverse effects on the environment are expected to be minimal, and serious interference with present or future land uses is not expected.
Friedman, M., S.O. Byers, and A.E. Brown. 1967. Plasma lipid responses of rats and rabbits to an auditory stimulus. Am. J. Physiol. 212:1174-1178.
Rats exposed to a continuous sound stimulus at 102 dB and an intermittent sound at 114 dB showed marked elevation and prolongation of clearing of post-prandial plasma triglyceride for approximately 21 days. The abnormality could be corrected with epinephrine. Ten weeks later the test animals showed higher blood cholesterol and more intense atherosclerosis than control animals.
Gamble, M.R. 1982. Sound and its significance for laboratory animals. Biol. Rev. 57:395-421.
The author reviews studies on the effects of noise on laboratory animals, including studies on the ability of ·rodents to assess sound. Many of the studies indicated that rats and mice can develop seizures when exposed to loud sounds, or become more susceptible to other sounds later in life. Studies on guinea pigs and cats indicated that hearing damage was governed by the duration as well as the intensity of the sound and was irreversible.
Gold, A. 1973. Energy expenditure in animal locomotion. Sci. 181:275-276.
A wide variety of data on energy expended by animals in running, flying, or swimming can be accounted for by the hypothesis that all animals require the same quantity of energy to carry a unit of their own body mass one "step." For running locomotion this is approximately 0.0004 calories per gram per step.
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Gould, E. 1983. Mechanisms of mammalian auditory communication. Pages 265-342 in J.F. Eisenberg and D.G. Kleiman, eds. Advances in the study of mammalian behavior. Am. Soc. Mamm. Special Publ. 7.
Sound production and auditory communication in a variety of mammals are discussed. Mammalian vocalizations range in frequency from the horse's roar of 50 to 100 Hz up to 150 kHz in some bats. High-frequency sounds are extremely directional and attenuate quickly with distance. Low-frequency sounds attenuate slowly with distance and are relatively omnidirectional. The transmission properties of a vocalization depend on environmental factors (temperature, humidity, landscape, vegetation). Range of vocal signal is influenced by intensity of the source, level of background noise, rates of signal degredation, and the perceptual abilities of the receiver.
Gourevitch, G. 1983. The localization and lateralization of sound by land mammals. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 73(Suppl. 1):S17-18. [Abstract.]
During the past few years, research on directional hearing in land mammals branched out considerably. For the first time, physical measurements were made of interaural time differences between the ears of animals. Further measurements of interaural intensities were also determined. Localization acuity was examined in previously untested species, among which were the largest terrestrial mammal (elephant, Elephas sp.) and one of the smallest (kangaroo rat, Dopodomys sp.). Extensive investigations were conducted on sound localization, and on binaural sensitivity for putative directional cues in nonhuman primates. The localization of different macaque (Macaca sp.) vocalizations tending to occur in different social contexts was also investigated. Altogether, this work indicates that (1) in comparison to other terrestrial mammals, man's directional hearing remains foremost; (2) in a number of instances, localization is not as accurate as might be expected on the basis of head size; (3) the sensitivity of the binaural system does not necessarily increase to compensate for weaker interaural differences in a small headed animal, and may be less than in humans; and (4) in lower primates, localization may have an important communicative role in addition to that of orientation.
Griffin, D.R., and C.D. Hopkins. 1974. Sounds audible to migrating birds. Anim. Behav. 22:672-678.
Sound levels of frog choruses were measured in eastern New York State at altitudes of up to several hundred meters. Bullfrog (Rana catesbeina) choruses from small ponds often could be recorded by a radio microphone up to 500 m, and on an especially favorable night with light winds, they were clearly audible even at 965 m at about 20 dB SPL in the 1.5 to 2.5 kHz frequency band. Sound travels upward much farther and more predictably than along the surface. Many natural sounds, including those from frogs, insects, whitecaps, and perhaps wind-blown vegetation, arise from large areas and therefore act as
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extended sources. The intensities of such sounds decrease with altitude more slowly than expected from the inverse square law. Natural sound fields provide migrating birds with a potential source of information about the kind of land or water below them, and their progress over acoustic landmarks could inform them about wind velocity. Because atmospheric absorption increases with frequency, several hundred meters of air act as a low-pass filter, so that altitude could be estimated from the relative reduction of higher frequencies in a familiar sound.
Griffin, D.R., J.J.G. McCue, and A.D. Grinnel. 1963. The resistance of bats to jamming. J. Exp. Zool. 152:229-250.
The resistance of long-eared bats (Plecotus townsendii) to jamming was analyzed by obstacle-avoidance tests in noise of various frequency bands. Jamming was significantly more effective in 10- to 90-kHz noise than in 10- to 50-kHz noise, but raising the upper limit of the noise spectrum to 120 kHz (with considerable but unmeasured energy above 120 kHz) had no discernible effects. The fundamental frequencies of the bat's orientation sounds sweep from 45 to 25 kHz. Directional discrimination results partly from acoustic properties of the external ears, and partly from a type of binaural interaction between nerve impulses from the two cochleas.
Gunn, W.W.H., and J.A. Livingston, eds. 1974. Disturbance to birds by gas compressor noise simulators, aircraft, and human activity in the Mackenzie Valley and the North Slope, 1972. Arct. Gas Biol. Rep. Ser. 14. 280 pp.
This report contains eight studies on the effects of disturbance to waterfowl, seabirds, and terrestrial breeding birds in the Mackenzie Valley and North Slope of Alaska and Canada. Float-plane disturbance over 3 days decreased the waterfowl population on a small (0.08 mi2) experimental lake by 60%; numbers remained stable on a small control lake until a low-passing bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) caused 45-50 birds to leave the lake. Numbers of waterfowl on larger lakes (0.10-0.62 mi2) declined slightly during the disturbance, but population data were inconclusive because of problems obtaining consistent counts. Low-flying helicopter disturbance and human activity did not affect the population density of lapland longspurs (Calcarius lapponicus), but lower number of addled eggs, hatching success, and fledging success, and higher nest abandonment and premature disappearance of nestlings occurred on the disturbed site compared to the control site. In colonies of black brant (Branta bernicla), common eiders (Somateria mollissima), glaucaus gulls (Larus hyperboreus), and Arctic terns (Sterna paradisaea), human presence appeared to affect incubating behavior of birds more than fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters. Helicopters were more disturbing to birds than fixed-wing aircraft. Indications were that disturbance as a whole may be detrimental to the nesting success of black brant and Arctic terns. Nonbreeding birds appeared to be more disturbed by people and by both types of aircraft than were nesting birds. Molting waterfowl were driven from land by helicopter disturbance 100 yards from shore at altitudes of 100-750 ft AGL. Surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata) appeared to be more sensitive to the disturbances than oldsquaws (Clangula hyemalis). No detectable numbers of waterfowl were
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driven away from the area by the disturbance. Resting snow geese (Chen caerulescens) were disturbed by a Cessna 185 at altitudes varying from 300-10,000 ft AGL. Geese tended to flush at greater distances when the aircraft was under 1,000 ft AGL. After severe disturbance, flock sizes were reduced with a consequent increase in the number of flocks. Geese were driven from a 50-mi2 area by "hazing" with a Cessna 185. The authors recommended curtailing aircraft flights over the premigratory staging areas between 15 August and 30 September. The reports emphasized the need for additional research with more detailed study designs to fully evaluate the effect of disturbance on birds in the Mackenzie Valley and North Slope.
Ha, S.J. 1985. Evidence of temporary hearing loss (temporary threshold shift) in fish subjected to laboratory ambient noise. Proc. Pennsylvania Acad. Sci. 59:78. [Abstract.]
During a study of masking effects on the hearing of the lane snapper (Lutjanus synagris), fish held in certain aquaria had consistently higher than normal thresholds to pure tones, when tested later in a low noise apparatus. Comparison of laboratory aquaria showed that the only difference in aquaria was the presence of conventional air stones (in the aquaria holding the less sensitive fish) used to release compressed air to oxygenate and mix the water. Hearing tests on two groups of fish, held with and without airstone air release, showed significant differences in hearing sensitivity.
Harbers, L.H., D.R. Ames, A.B. Davis, and M.B. Ahmed. 1975. Digestive responses of sheep to auditory stimuli. J. Anim. Sci. 41:654-658.
The effect of three types of noise (at 75 and 100 dB) on metabolism in sheep was studied. Animals ate less when exposed to sound exceeding background levels. Intermittent noise increased water intake and metabolizable energy, and improved apparent nutrient digestibilities.
Harrison, J.M. 1984. The functional analysis of auditory discrimination. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 75:1845-1854.
Mammals have evolved the ability to acquire auditory discriminations. Sound levels above about 90 dB are likely to be aversive and are associated with a number of behaviors such as retreat from the sound source, freezing, or a strong startle response. Sound levels below about 90 dB usually create much less aversive behavior. This paper reviews experiments that were directed at showing that auditory discriminations are most rapidly acquired when natural features are incorporated into the experiments. The experiments were also directed at discovering the underlying characteristics of the discriminative ability. When animals were trained to discriminate the position of a sound source in which natural features were incorporated into the experiment, the discrimination was acquired in one trial. Manipulation of the natural features suggested that one-trial acquisition depends upon (1) stimulus novelty--the effect of reinforcement is stronger in the presence of novel than familiar
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stimuli, and (2) specific behavioral effect of reinforcement--the effect of reinforcing a response in the presence of a novel auditory stimulus is to increase the strength of approaching and manipulating the sound source.
Hawkins, A.D., and A.D.F. Johnstone. 1978. The hearing of the Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. J. Fish Biol. 13:655-673.
The hearing of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) was studied by means of a cardiac conditioning technique. The minimum sound level to which the fish responded was determined for a range of pure tones, both in the sea and in the laboratory. The fish responded only to low-frequency tones (below 380 Hz); particle motion, rather than sound pressure, proved to be the relevant stimulus. The sensitivity of the fish to sound was not affected by the level of sea noise under natural conditions, but hearing is likely to be masked by ambient noise in a turbulent river. Sound measurements made in the River Dee, near Aberdeen, Scotland, led to the conclusion that salmon are unlikely to detect sounds originating in air, but that they are sensitive to substrate-borne sounds. Compared with carp (Cyprinis carpio) and cod (Gadus morhua), the hearing of the salmon is poor, and more like that of the perch (Perca fluviatilis) and the plaice (Pleuronectes platessa).
Heaton, M.B. 1972. Prenatal auditory discrimination in the wood duck (Aix sponsa). Anim. Behav. 20:421-424.
On the day prior to hatching, wood duck (Aix sponsa) embryos were tested for their response to a taped maternal call of a wood duck or a mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) at acoustic levels of 80-82 dB. Sixty-five percent of the embryos receiving the species-specific call increased bill-clapping during stimulus presentation, and 75% of the embryos receiving the mallard call decreased bill-clapping. During each call, the heart rates of embryos increased significantly. Because the wood duck's postnatal behavior with respect to the species-specific call was inconsistent, the demonstrated prenatal specificity may require some sort of supportive auditory input, perhaps similar to that occurring in the natural situation, to maintain and carry over for functional significance into postnatal life.
Hecock, R., and K. Rhoads. 1979. Noise, aircraft, wildlife, and people: a bibliographic review. Final report. Coop. Wildl. Res. Unit, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater. 21 pp.
This annotated bibliography concerning the effects of noise on wildlife and humans, with emphasis on noise from jet airplanes, includes brief abstracts of 18 papers on animals, 26 papers on humans, and 14 Environmental Impact Statements. The report does not include a discussion or summary section.
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Heffner, H. 1977. Hearing and sound localization in the kangaroo rat (Dipodomys merriami). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 61(Suppl. 1):S59. [Abstract.]
Hearing thresholds were determined for two kangaroo rats using a two-choice procedure. The rats successfully responded to frequencies varying from 50 Hz to 64 kHz. The two-choice procedure was then used to determine the ability of the animals to localize single clicks. The results of these tests indicate, first, that the kangaroo rat possesses good high- and low-frequency hearing and, second, that it can locate the source of a brief sound.
Heffner, H., and B. Masterton. 1980. Hearing in glires: domestic rabbit, cotton rat, feral house mouse, and kangaroo rat. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 68:1584-1599.
Behavioral audiograms were determined for four species of glires: one lagomorph [domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)] and three feral rodents [cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus), house mouse (Mus musculus, and kangaroo rat (Dipodomys merriami)]. Considerable variation in hearing ability was found among the four species, with low-frequency hearing limits varying over 5.5 octaves, from 50 Hz (kangaroo rat) to 2,300 Hz (feral mouse), and high-frequency hearing limits varying from 49 kHz (rabbit) to 90 kHz (feral mouse). Comparison of the characteristics of each audiogram with the audiograms of other animals in the same order, cohort, and class provided further evidence for the validity of two r